Academic publications

Predicting the large-scale consequences of drought in contrasting environments requires that we understand how drought effects differ among species originating from those environments. A previous meta-analysis of published experiments suggested that the effects of drought on both stomatal and non-stomatal limitations to photosynthesis may vary consistently among species from different hydroclimates. Here, we explicitly tested this hypothesis with two short-term water stress experiments on congeneric mesic and xeric species. One experiment was run in Australia using Eucalyptus species and the second was run in Spain using Quercus species as well as two more mesic species. In each experiment, plants were grown under moist conditions in a glasshouse, then deprived of water, and gas exchange was monitored. The stomatal response was analysed with a recently developed stomatal model, whose single parameter g1 represents the slope of the relationship between stomatal conductance and photosynthesis. The non-stomatal response was partitioned into effects on mesophyll conductance (gm), the maximum Rubisco activity (Vcmax) and the maximum electron transport rate (Jmax). We found consistency among the drought responses of g1, gm, Vcmax and Jmax, suggesting that drought imposes limitations on Rubisco activity and RuBP regeneration capacity concurrently with declines in stomatal and mesophyll conductance. Within each experiment, the more xeric species showed relatively high g1 under moist conditions, low drought sensitivity of g1, gm, Vcmax and Jmax, and more negative values of the critical pre-dawn water potential at which Vcmax declines most steeply, compared with the more mesic species. These results indicate adaptive interspecific differences in drought responses that allow xeric tree species to continue transpiration and photosynthesis for longer during periods without rain.

Journal article

Zhao M, Shi J, Zhong X, Tian S, Blamey J, Jiang J, Fennell PSet al., 2014,

A novel calcium looping absorbent incorporated with polymorphic spacers for hydrogen production and CO2 capture

, Energy and Environmental Science, Vol: 7, Pages: 3291-3295, ISSN: 1754-5692

High temperature looping cycles can be used to produce hydrogen or capture CO2 from power stations, though sintering of absorbents is frequently a problem, reducing reactivity. In this work we develop materials, in which the crystal structure and volume of polymorphic materials change with temperature, as active spacers to reduce sintering.

Journal article

Le Vine SE, Lee-Gosselin MEH, Sivakumar A, Polak JWet al., 2014,

A new approach to predict the market and impacts of round-trip and point-to-point carsharing systems: case study of London

, Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, Vol: 32, Pages: 218-229, ISSN: 1361-9209

There are nearly two million subscribers to carsharing services worldwide. These services can provide large benefits both to users and the general public (e.g. through emissions reductions). There has not however previously existed a general framework for forecasting their market potential and impacts that is sensitive to the way that they re-structure the costs associated with personal car ownership. Techniques for predicting market scope and impacts ahead of field implementation are urgently required, both by entrepreneurs and the public sector, whose support, or at least acquiescence, is generally required.This paper draws on the Perceived Activity Set conceptual framework that was recently developed to address the methodological challenges posed by carsharing, and presents the first set of empirical findings from employing it to model carsharing. The empirical analysis makes uses of pooled data from the British National Travel Survey and a purpose-designed stated-choice survey. We investigate both the ‘round-trip’ and ‘point-to-point’ carsharing service models.The results suggest that the number of prospective subscribers to a point-to-point carsharing service in London is between three and four times as large as the comparable number for round-trip carsharing. The greatest reduction in overall vehicle-miles of travel – including both carsharing cars and private cars – was found from introducing round-trip carsharing across all of London. Survey respondents indicated they would use point-to-point carsharing for commuting journeys much more frequently than round-trip carsharing. Finally, point-to-point carsharing was found to be a substitute for public transport, whilst round-trip carsharing was found to be a complement.

Conference paper

Howey DA, Yufit V, Mitcheson PD, Offer GJ, Brandon NPet al., 2014,

Impedance measurement for advanced battery management systems

We present a fast, low-cost approach to measure battery impedance 'on-line' in a vehicle across a range of frequencies (1-2000 Hz). Impedance measurement has promise for improving battery management since it is a very effective non-invasive method of diagnosing the internal state of an electrochemical cell. It is useful for estimating temperature, ageing, state of charge (SOC) and for fault detection. The aim of this paper is firstly to explore the usefulness of impedance for estimating SOC, focusing on lithium-ion iron phosphate (LFP) and nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cells, and secondly to demonstrate the performance of a low cost impedance measurement system that uses an existing motor drive similar to that of an electric vehicle to excite the battery current. We find that measurements made with this system are accurate to within a few per cent of results from an expensive, bulky commercial system. For SOC estimation in NMC cells, the charge transfer resistance and SEI layer resistance vary significantly with SOC. In LFP cells the parameter variation is much less obvious, although the double layer capacitance of the full pack may be a useful indicator of SOC.

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Citations: 19

Conference paper

Mazur C, Contestabile M, Offer GJ, Brandon NPet al., 2014,

Understanding the automotive industry: German OEM behaviour during the last 20 years and its implications

This work presents a study of how the automotive industry has responded in the last 20 years to pressures driven by economic and environmental issues, and by the transition towards electric mobility. Timelines for the major German automotive OEMs are presented to understand the industry's behaviour in the past in order to design suitable policies that are appropriate to reach future goals around the electrification of road transport. Based upon a comparison of the pressures arising in the automotive sector and the companies' behaviour with regard to technology choice and R&D, a set of hypotheses concerning this behaviour is then presented.

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Citations: 1

Journal article

Yu W, Xu L, Graham N, Qu Jet al., 2014,

Pre-treatment for ultrafiltration: effect of pre-chlorination on membrane fouling

, SCIENTIFIC REPORTS, Vol: 4, ISSN: 2045-2322

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Citations: 52

Journal article

Strbac G, Pollitt M, Konstantinidis CV, Konstantelos I, Moreno R, Newbery D, Green Ret al., 2014,

Electricity transmission arrangements in Great Britain: Time for change?

, Energy Policy, Vol: 73, Pages: 298-311, ISSN: 0301-4215

In Great Britain (GB) and across Europe significant investment in electricity transmission is expected over the coming years as decarbonisation and market integration efforts are intensified. However, there is also significant uncertainty with the amount, location and timing of new generation connection, which in turn will drive the transmission investment needs. Given the absence of efficient market design, we identify three key areas of concern with the current transmission investment arrangements: (i) a mis-aligned incentives framework for transmission investment and operation; (ii) lack of coordination of investment and operation; and (iii) conflicts of interest. We then propose three options for future evolution of transmission regimes, which cover the full spectrum of institutional arrangements with respect to transmission planning and delivery, i.e. how and who plans, owns, builds and operates the transmission system. For each option we present: key characteristics; evolution of the current regimes; the ability of the option to address the concerns; and key strengths and weaknesses. Overall, we conclude in the case of GB (this conclusion could be extended to other European countries) that the most appropriate option would be that of an Independent System Operator (ISO) who would be responsible for planning and operating the transmission system.

Journal article

Hey J, Teo TJ, Viet PB, Yang G, Martinez-Botas Ret al., 2014,

Electromagnetic actuator design analysis using a two-stage optimization method with coarse-fine model output space mapping

, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Vol: 61, Pages: 5453-5464, ISSN: 0278-0046

Electromagnetic actuators are energy conversion devices that suffer from inefficiencies. The conversion losses generate internal heat, which is undesirable, as it leads to thermal loading on the device. Temperature rise should be limited to enhance the reliability, minimize thermal disturbance, and improve the output performance of the device. This paper presents the application of an optimization method to determine the geometric configuration of a flexure-based linear electromagnetic actuator that maximizes output force per unit of heat generated. A two-stage optimization method is used to search for a global solution, followed by a feasible solution locally using a branch and bound method. The finite element magnetic (fine) model is replaced by an analytical (coarse) model during optimization using an output space mapping technique. An 80% reduction in computation time is achieved by the application of such an approximation technique. The measured output from the new prototype based on the optimal design shows a 45% increase in air gap magnetic flux density, a 40% increase in output force, and a 26% reduction in heat generation when compared with the initial design before application of the optimization method.

Conference paper

Offer GJ, Plant DJ, Silversides RW, Smith TMS, Goodwill R, Kanabar P, Martinez-Botas RFet al., 2014,

Control and energy management strategies for a novel series hybrid

In this work a novel series hybrid powertrain concept is presented. The concept removes the requirement for a power electronic converter to manage the state of charge of the accumulators by controlling the power flow between the generator and accumulator. Instead, the engine and generator are directly coupled and the state of charge of the accumulators is maintained by controlling the speed and power output of the engine to control the power flow to the accumulators. Results are presented from a proof-of-concept system that was built for a vehicle with a target peak power of 60kW with supercapacitors. Models are also presented comparing and contrasting a battery version with the supercapacitor version for a Formula Student vehicle. The powertrain is particularly suited for applications which have very high torque requirements, and hence the use of a mechanical gearbox introduces significant cost & weight, and is also ideally suited for applications where power needs to be distributed throughout an application to multiple locations, and hence multiple mechanical linkages would normally be required. The supercapacitor version is most suited to applications with high peak to average load ratios and noisy load cycles, and the battery version could be seen as a low cost route to range extend a battery electric vehicle.

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Journal article

Hey J, Kiew CM, Yang G, Martinez-Botas Ret al., 2014,

Model-Based Compensation of Thermal Disturbance in a Precision Linear Electromagnetic Actuator

, IEEE-ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS, Vol: 19, Pages: 1477-1488, ISSN: 1083-4435

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Citations: 9

Journal article

Milner-Gulland EJ, Mcgregor JA, Agarwala M, Atkinson G, Bevan P, Clements T, Daw T, Homewood K, Kumpel N, Lewis J, Mourato S, Fry BP, Redshaw M, Rowcliffe JM, Suon S, Wallace G, Washington H, Wilkie Det al., 2014,

Accounting for the Impact of Conservation on Human Well-Being

, CONSERVATION BIOLOGY, Vol: 28, Pages: 1160-1166, ISSN: 0888-8892

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Citations: 88

Journal article

Dani KGS, Jamie IM, Prentice IC, Atwell BJet al., 2014,

Increased Ratio of Electron Transport to Net Assimilation Rate Supports Elevated Isoprenoid Emission Rate in Eucalypts under Drought

, PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, Vol: 166, Pages: 1059-1072, ISSN: 0032-0889

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Citations: 22

Journal article

Montrikittiphant T, Tang M, Lee K-Y, Williams CK, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

Bacterial Cellulose Nanopaper as Reinforcement for Polylactide Composites: Renewable Thermoplastic NanoPaPreg

, MACROMOLECULAR RAPID COMMUNICATIONS, Vol: 35, Pages: 1640-1645, ISSN: 1022-1336

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Citations: 25

Journal article

Didham RK, Ewers RM, 2014,

Edge Effects Disrupt Vertical Stratification of Microclimate in a Temperate Forest Canopy

, PACIFIC SCIENCE, Vol: 68, Pages: 493-508, ISSN: 0030-8870

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Citations: 23

Journal article

Gray C, Baird DJ, Baumgartner S, Jacob U, Jenkins GB, O'Gorman EJ, Lu X, Ma A, Pocock MJO, Schuwirth N, Thompson M, Woodward Get al., 2014,

FORUM Ecological networks: the missing links in biomonitoring science

, JOURNAL OF APPLIED ECOLOGY, Vol: 51, Pages: 1444-1449, ISSN: 0021-8901

Report

Gross R, Speirs J, Hawkes AD, Skillings S, Heptonstall Pet al., 2014,

Could retaining old coal lead to a policy own goal?

Journal article

Montrikittiphant T, Tang M, Lee KY, Williams CK, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

Macromol. Rapid commun. 19/2014.

, Macromol Rapid Commun, Vol: 35

Frontispiece: A Werkstoffverbund (laminated composite) manufacturing concept is used to produce high performance renewable bacterial cellulose (BC) nanopaper reinforced thermoplastic laminates. The mechanical performance of the resulting BC-reinforced thermoplastic laminates is found to be dependent on the tensile performance of the reinforcing BC nanopaper. Further details can be found in the article by T. Montrikittiphant, M. Tang, K.-Y. Lee,* C. K. Williams, and A. Bismarck* on page 1640.

Journal article

Khan AE, Scheelbeek PFD, Shilpi AB, Chan Q, Mojumder SK, Rahman A, Haines A, Vineis Pet al., 2014,

Salinity in drinking water and the risk of (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension in coastal Bangladesh: A case-control study

, PLoS One, Vol: 9, Pages: 1-9, ISSN: 1932-6203

BackgroundHypertensive disorders in pregnancy are among the leading causes of maternal and perinatal death in low-income countries, but the aetiology remains unclear. We investigated the relationship between salinity in drinking water and the risk of (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension in a coastal community.MethodsA population-based case-control study was conducted in Dacope, Bangladesh among 202 pregnant women with (pre)eclampsia or gestational hypertension, enrolled from the community served by the Upazilla Health Complex, Dacope and 1,006 matched controls from the same area. Epidemiological and clinical data were obtained from all participants. Urinary sodium and sodium levels in drinking water were measured. Logistic regression was used to calculate odds ratios, and 95% confidence intervals.FindingsDrinking water sources had exceptionally high sodium levels (mean 516.6 mg/L, S.D 524.2). Women consuming tube-well (groundwater) were at a higher disease risk than rainwater users (p<0.001). Adjusted risks for (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension considered together increased in a dose-response manner for increasing sodium concentrations (300.01–600 mg/L, 600.1–900 mg/L, >900.01 mg/L, compared to <300 mg/L) in drinking water (ORs 3.30 [95% CI 2.00–5.51], 4.40 [2.70–7.25] and 5.48 [3.30–9.11] (p-trend<0.001). Significant associations were seen for both (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension separately.InterpretationSalinity in drinking water is associated with increased risk of (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension in this population. Given that coastal populations in countries such as Bangladesh are confronted with high salinity exposure, which is predicted to further increase as a result of sea level rise and other environmental influences, it is imperative to develop and evaluate affordable approaches to providing water with low salt content.

Journal article

Cotter CJ, McRae ATT, 2014,

Compatible finite element methods for numerical weather prediction

, Proceedings of the EMCWF Annual Seminar

This article takes the form of a tutorial on the use of a particular class ofmixed finite element methods, which can be thought of as the finite elementextension of the C-grid staggered finite difference method. The class is oftenreferred to as compatible finite elements, mimetic finite elements, discretedifferential forms or finite element exterior calculus. We provide anelementary introduction in the case of the one-dimensional wave equation,before summarising recent results in applications to the rotating shallow waterequations on the sphere, before taking an outlook towards applications inthree-dimensional compressible dynamical cores.

Journal article

Kirchartz T, Nelson J, 2014,

Device Modelling of Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells

, MULTISCALE MODELLING OF ORGANIC AND HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAICS, Vol: 352, Pages: 279-324, ISSN: 0340-1022

Journal article

Kaczmarska J, Isham V, Onof C, 2014,

Point process models for fine-resolution rainfall

, Hydrological Sciences Journal/Journal des Sciences, Hydrologiques, Vol: 59, Pages: 1972-1991, ISSN: 0262-6667

In a recent development in the literature, a new temporal rainfall model, based on the Bartlett-Lewis clustering mechanism and intended for sub-hourly application, was introduced. That model replaced the rectangular rain cells of the original model with finite Poisson processes of instantaneous pulses, allowing greater variability in rainfall intensity over short intervals. In the present paper, the basic instantaneous pulse model is first extended to allow for randomly varying storm types. A systematic comparison of a number of key model variants, fitted to 5-min rainfall data from Germany, then generates further new insights into the models, leading to the development of an additional model extension, which introduces dependence between rainfall intensity and duration in a simple way. The new model retains the original rectangular cells, previously assumed inappropriate for fine-scale data, obviating the need for the computationally more intensive instantaneous pulse model.

Journal article

Bistinas I, Harrison SP, Prentice IC, Pereira JMCet al., 2014,

Causal relationships versus emergent patterns in the global controls of fire frequency

, Biogeosciences, Vol: 11, Pages: 5087-5101, ISSN: 1726-4170

Global controls on month-by-month fractional burnt area (2000–2005) were investigated by fitting a generalised linear model (GLM) to Global Fire Emissions Database (GFED) data, with 11 predictor variables representing vegetation, climate, land use and potential ignition sources. Burnt area is shown to increase with annual net primary production (NPP), number of dry days, maximum temperature, grazing-land area, grass/shrub cover and diurnal temperature range, and to decrease with soil moisture, cropland area and population density. Lightning showed an apparent (weak) negative influence, but this disappeared when pure seasonal-cycle effects were taken into account. The model predicts observed geographic and seasonal patterns, as well as the emergent relationships seen when burnt area is plotted against each variable separately. Unimodal relationships with mean annual temperature and precipitation, population density and gross domestic product (GDP) are reproduced too, and are thus shown to be secondary consequences of correlations between different controls (e.g. high NPP with high precipitation; low NPP with low population density and GDP). These findings have major implications for the design of global fire models, as several assumptions in current models – most notably, the widely assumed dependence of fire frequency on ignition rates – are evidently incorrect.

Conference paper

Pinheiro L, Napp T, Hawkes AD, 2014,

Can Brazil fulfil long term reduction targets? An evaluation of consequences of delayed action on its energy sector

, 9th Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environmental Systems

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Journal article

Field KJ, Rimington WR, Bidartondo MI, Allinson KE, Beerling DJ, Cameron DD, Duckett JG, Leake JR, Pressel Set al., 2014,

First evidence of mutualism between ancient plant lineages (Haplomitriopsida liverworts) and Mucoromycotina fungi and its response to simulated Palaeozoic changes in atmospheric CO2

, New Phytologist, ISSN: 1469-8137

The discovery that Mucoromycotina, an ancient and partially saprotrophic fungal lineage, associates with the basal liverwort lineage Haplomitriopsida casts doubt on the widely held view that Glomeromycota formed the sole ancestral plant-fungus symbiosis. Whether this association is mutualistic, and how its functioning was affected by the fall in atmospheric CO2 concentration that followed plant terrestrialization in the Palaeozoic, remains unknown. We measured carbon-for-nutrient exchanges between Haplomitriopsida liverworts and Mucoromycotina fungi under simulated mid-Palaeozoic (1500 ppm) and near-contemporary (440 ppm) CO2 concentrations using isotope tracers, and analysed cytological differences in plant-fungal interactions. Concomitantly, we cultured both partners axenically, resynthesized the associations in vitro, and characterized their cytology. We demonstrate that liverwort-Mucoromycotina symbiosis is mutualistic and mycorrhiza-like, but differs from liverwort-Glomeromycota symbiosis in maintaining functional efficiency of carbon-for-nutrient exchange between partners across CO2 concentrations. Inoculation of axenic plants with Mucoromycotina caused major cytological changes affecting the anatomy of plant tissues, similar to that observed in wild-collected plants colonized by Mucoromycotina fungi. By demonstrating reciprocal exchange of carbon for nutrients between partners, our results provide support for Mucoromycotina establishing the earliest mutualistic symbiosis with land plants. As symbiotic functional efficiency was not compromised by reduced CO2 , we suggest that other factors led to the modern predominance of the Glomeromycota symbiosis.

Conference paper

Hannon M, Skea J, Rhodes A, 2014,

Innovation in the energy sector: advancing or frustrating climate policy goals?

, 10th British Institute of Energy Economics Academic Conference

The energy sector is well known for the relatively modest level of resource that it devotes to research and development (R&D). However, the incremental pace of energy innovation has speeded up in the last decade as measured by public sector R&D budgets, deployment of alternative technologies and novel institutional arrangements. While much of this effort has been targeted at technologies that promise to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, there have also been major innovations that extend the fossil fuel resource base and reduce the cost of extraction. The last decade’s developments can be seen in terms of a challenge to the existing energy paradigm in parallel with a renewed innovative response focusing on conventional fuels and technologies. This paper examines this tension, by exploring the expectations of a variety of organisations in both the public and private sector regarding energy sector developments and by analysing private sector expenditure on energy research and development (R&D) and public sector budgets for energy R&D and demonstration (RD&D). Scenarios and outlook exercises that have been published since 2013 reveal a wide range of beliefs about the future development of the energy system. The contrasting views underpinning the different scenarios are reflected in divergent patterns of R&D investment between the private and public sectors. There appears to be a tension between the drive to transform energy systems, on the part of public bodies, mainly motivated by the need to combat global climate change, and private sector activity, which tends to reinforce and extend existing patterns of energy provision. The paper addresses, but not answer definitively, the key question as to whether technological change is enabling or frustrating ambitious carbon goals.

Journal article

Al Aukidy M, Verlicchi P, Voulvoulis N, 2014,

A framework for the assessment of the environmental risk posed by pharmaceuticals originating from hospital effluents

, Science of the Total Environment, Vol: 493, Pages: 54-64, ISSN: 0048-9697

The consumption of pharmaceuticals is increasing in both hospitals and households. After administration, many compounds enter the water cycle as parent compounds or their metabolites via excretion. Conventional municipal wastewater treatment plants are unable to efficiently remove all the different compounds found in sewage and, consequently, treated effluents are one of the main sources of persistent micropollutants in the environment. Hospital patients are administered relatively high quantities of drugs and therefore hospital wastewaters can consistently contribute to treatment plant influent loads, with the magnitude of environmental risk posed by pharmaceuticals originating from hospital effluents largely unknown. This study has therefore developed a framework to enable authorities responsible for hospital management and environmental health to evaluate such risk, considering site-specific information such as the contribution of human population and hospital sizes, wastewater treatment removal efficiency, and potential dilution in the receiving water body. The framework was applied to three case studies, that are representative of frequent situations in many countries, and findings demonstrated that the degree of risk posed by any compound was site-specific and depended on a combination of several factors: compound concentration and toxicity, compound removal efficiency in the wastewater treatment plant and dilution factor. Ofloxacin, 17α-ethinylestradiol, erythromycin and sulfamethoxazole were identified as compounds of concern and might require management in order to reduce risk.

In Situ Measurement of Energy Level Shifts and Recombination Rates in Subphthalocyanine/C<sub>60</sub> Bilayer Solar Cells

Electron Collection as a Limit to Polymer:PCBM Solar Cell Efficiency: Effect of Blend Microstructure on Carrier Mobility and Device Performance in PTB7:PCBM

A double-edged sword for tropical forests

PyRDM: A Python-based Library for Automating the Management and Online Publication of Scientific Software and Data

Short-term water stress impacts on stomatal, mesophyll and biochemical limitations to photosynthesis differ consistently among tree species from contrasting climates

A novel calcium looping absorbent incorporated with polymorphic spacers for hydrogen production and CO2 capture

A new approach to predict the market and impacts of round-trip and point-to-point carsharing systems: case study of London

Impedance measurement for advanced battery management systems

Understanding the automotive industry: German OEM behaviour during the last 20 years and its implications

Pre-treatment for ultrafiltration: effect of pre-chlorination on membrane fouling

Electricity transmission arrangements in Great Britain: Time for change?

Electromagnetic actuator design analysis using a two-stage optimization method with coarse-fine model output space mapping

Control and energy management strategies for a novel series hybrid

Model-Based Compensation of Thermal Disturbance in a Precision Linear Electromagnetic Actuator

Accounting for the Impact of Conservation on Human Well-Being

Increased Ratio of Electron Transport to Net Assimilation Rate Supports Elevated Isoprenoid Emission Rate in Eucalypts under Drought

Bacterial Cellulose Nanopaper as Reinforcement for Polylactide Composites: Renewable Thermoplastic NanoPaPreg

Edge Effects Disrupt Vertical Stratification of Microclimate in a Temperate Forest Canopy

FORUM Ecological networks: the missing links in biomonitoring science

Could retaining old coal lead to a policy own goal?

Macromol. Rapid commun. 19/2014.

Salinity in drinking water and the risk of (pre)eclampsia and gestational hypertension in coastal Bangladesh: A case-control study

Compatible finite element methods for numerical weather prediction

Device Modelling of Organic Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells

Point process models for fine-resolution rainfall

Causal relationships versus emergent patterns in the global controls of fire frequency

Can Brazil fulfil long term reduction targets? An evaluation of consequences of delayed action on its energy sector

First evidence of mutualism between ancient plant lineages (Haplomitriopsida liverworts) and Mucoromycotina fungi and its response to simulated Palaeozoic changes in atmospheric CO2

Innovation in the energy sector: advancing or frustrating climate policy goals?

A framework for the assessment of the environmental risk posed by pharmaceuticals originating from hospital effluents

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