Publications
See a list of publications below or visit the Photonics academic staff page and click on a particular member of staff to access their personal web page, which includes a list of their own publications.
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Conference paperLepert G, Gouveia RM, Connon CJ, et al., 2016,
High-resolution imaging of limbal structural properties using Brillouin spectro-microscopy
, Annual Meeting of the Association-for-Research-in-Vision-and-Ophthalmology (ARVO), Publisher: ASSOC RESEARCH VISION OPHTHALMOLOGY INC, ISSN: 0146-0404 -
Journal articleChennell G, Willows RJW, Warren SC, et al., 2016,
Imaging of Metabolic Status in 3D Cultures with an Improved AMPK FRET Biosensor for FLIM
, Sensors, Vol: 16, ISSN: 1424-8239We describe an approach to non-invasively map spatiotemporal biochemical and physiological changes in 3D cell culture using Forster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) biosensors expressed in tumour spheroids. In particular, we present an improved Adenosine Monophosphate (AMP) Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK) FRET biosensor, mTurquoise2 AMPK Activity Reporter (T2AMPKAR), for fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) readouts that we have evaluated in 2D and 3D cultures. Our results in 2D cell culture indicate that replacing the FRET donor, enhanced Cyan Fluorescent Protein (ECFP), in the original FRET biosensor, AMPK activity reporter (AMPKAR), with mTurquoise2 (mTq2FP), increases the dynamic range of the response to activation of AMPK, as demonstrated using the direct AMPK activator, 991. We demonstrated 3D FLIM of this T2AMPKAR FRET biosensor expressed in tumour spheroids using two-photon excitation.
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Conference paperKinsler P, Gratus J, McCall MW, et al., 2016,
Dispersion in space-time transformation optics
, URSI International Symposium on Electromagnetic Theory (EMTS), Publisher: IEEE, ISSN: 2163-405XThe use of spacetime cloaking to hide events is an intriguing trick, but the unavoidable presence of dispersion limits the performance of any implementation, and needs to be accounted for. We show how the dispersion changes under transformation.
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Journal articleCarter IE, Weir K, McCall MW, et al., 2016,
Variation in the circularly polarized light reflection of Lomaptera (Scarabaeidae) beetles
, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, Vol: 13, ISSN: 1742-5689An extended spectroscopic study on the left-through-left circularly polarised reflection spectra of a large number of beetles from the Australasian Scrabaeidae:Cetoniinae of the Lomaptera genus was undertaken. We have obtained a five-category spectral classification.The principal spectral features, which even within the genus range from blue to infra-red, are related to structural chirality in the beetle shells. The detailed features of each spectral classification are related to different structural perturbations of the helix including various pitch values and abrupt twist defects. These spectral characteristics and associated shell structures are confirmed on the basis of simple modelling. An important conclusion from our study is that the simple helical structure resulting in a single symmetric Bragg peak is not thedominant spectral type. Rather the reality is a rich tapestry of spectral types. One intriguing specimen is identified via an SEM micrograph to consist of a double interstitial helix leadingto a particular double-peak spectrum.
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Conference paperFriddin MS, Bolognesi G, Elani Y, et al., 2016,
The optical assembly of bilayer networks from cell-sized droplets for synthetic biology
, Systems and Synthetic Biology -
Journal articleMargineanu A, Chan JJ, Kelly DJ, et al., 2016,
Screening for protein-protein interactions using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM)
, Scientific Reports, Vol: 6, ISSN: 2045-2322We present a high content multiwell plate cell-based assay approach to quantify protein interactions directly in cells using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) read out by automated fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM). Automated FLIM is implemented using wide-field time-gated detection, typically requiring only 10 s per field of view (FOV). Averaging over biological, thermal and shot noise with 100’s to 1000’s of FOV enables unbiased quantitative analysis with high statistical power. Plotting average donor lifetime vs. acceptor/donor intensity ratio clearly identifies protein interactions and fitting to double exponential donor decay models provides estimates of interacting population fractions that, with calibrated donor and acceptor fluorescence intensities, can yield dissociation constants. We demonstrate the application to identify binding partners of MST1 kinase and estimate interaction strength among the members of the RASSF protein family, which have important roles in apoptosis via the Hippo signalling pathway. KD values broadly agree with published biochemical measurements.
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Journal articleRutter GA, Semplici F, Mondragon A, et al., 2016,
Cell type-specific deletion in mice reveals roles for PAS kinase in insulin and glucagon production
, Diabetologia, Vol: 59, Pages: 1938-1947, ISSN: 1432-0428Background and Aims. Per-Arnt-Sim domain containing kinase (PASK) is a nutrient regulated protein kinase previously implicated in the control of insulin gene expression and glucagon secretion. Here, we explore the roles of the kinase in the control of islet hormone release by generating mice deleted selectively for the Pask gene in pancreatic beta or alpha cells. Methods. Floxed alleles of Pask were produced by homologous recombination and animals bred with mice bearing beta (Ins1Cre, PaskBKO), or alpha (PPG-Cre; PaskAKO) cell selective Cre recombinase alleles. Glucose homeostasis and hormone secretion in vivo and in vitro, gene expression, and islet cell mass, were measured using standard techniques.Results. Ins1Cre-based recombination led to efficient beta cell targeted deletion of Pask. Beta cell mass was reduced by 36.5% (p<0.05) compared to controls in PaskBKO mice, as well as in global null Pask mice (38%, p<0.05). PaskBKO mice displayed normal body weight and fasting glycemia, but slightly impaired glucose tolerance, and beta cell proliferation, after maintenance on a high fat diet. Whilst glucose tolerance was unaffected in PaskAKO mice, glucose infusion rates were increased, and glucagon secretion tended to be lower, during hypoglycemic clamps. Though alpha cell mass was increased (21.9%, p<0.05), glucagon release at low glucose was impaired (p<0.05) in PaskAKO islets. Conclusions. The present findings demonstrate cell autonomous roles for PASK in the control of pancreatic endocrine hormone secretion. Differencesbetween the glycemic phenotype of global versus cell type specific null mice suggest important roles for tissue interactions in the control of glycemia by the kinase.
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Conference paperMurray RT, Runcorn TH, Kelleher EJR, et al., 2016,
Mid-Infrared Difference Frequency-Generation with Synchronized Fiber Lasers
, Advanced Solid State Lasers -
Conference paperMurray RT, Runcorn TH, Kelleher EJR, et al., 2016,
Watt-level Nanosecond 589 nm Source by SHG of a Cascaded Raman Amplifier
, Advanced Solid State Lasers 2016 -
Journal articleTaylor JR, 2016,
Tutorial on fiber-based sources for biophotonic applications
, Journal of Biomedical Optics, Vol: 21, ISSN: 1560-2281Fiber-based lasers and master oscillator power fiber amplifier configurations are described. These allow spectral versatility coupled with pulse width and pulse repetition rate selection in compact and efficient packages. This is enhanced through the use of nonlinear optical conversion in fibers and fiber-coupled nonlinear crystals, which can be integrated to provide all-fiber pump sources for diverse application. The advantages and disadvantages of sources based upon supercontinuum generation, stimulated Raman conversion, four-wave mixing, parametric generation and difference frequency generation, allowing spectral coverage from the UV to the mid-infrared, are considered.
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Journal articleGoodacre R, Sergo V, Barr H, et al., 2016,
Clinical Spectroscopy: general discussion
, Faraday Discussions, Vol: 187, Pages: 429-460, ISSN: 1364-5498 -
Conference paperKumar S, Bhuyan MK, 2016,
Neutral expression modeling in feature domain for facial expression recognition
, Pages: 224-228Facial expression recognition (FER) is an active pattern recognition problem in the field of computer vision. The objective of FER algorithms is to extract discriminative features from a face. From the Ekman's theory, any expression is a result from deviation of their neutral state. So, the analysis of expressive images with respect to neutral expression could be important for facial expression recognition. However, neutral images of different subjects comprise large variability in shapes as well as in texture. Hence, alignment is a primary step to minimize shape and texture variations of neutral images of different subjects. We propose to align neutral images of different subjects in the feature domain using Procrustes analysis. Subsequently, modeling of shape-free neutral images is done using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Projection of expressive image onto the neutral subspace helps to divide an image into two components namely neutral component and expressive component. Proposed method extracts features from both the components. Extracted features are divided into a number of blocks and subsequently, dimensionality of each block is reduced with multiple discriminant analysis (MDA). The reduced feature is used to train supervised support vector machine (SVM) classifier. Experimental results show the efficacy of the proposed approach.
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Conference paperWoodward RI, Murray RT, Phelan CF, et al., 2016,
Characterization of the nonlinear susceptibility of monolayer MoS2 using second- and third-harmonic generation microscopy
, CLEO:2016 Laser Science to Photonic Applications, Publisher: OSA, Pages: STu1R.3-STu1R.3Second- and third-harmonic generation microscopy of monolayer MoS2 is reported for imaging and characterization of the material's nonlinearity. A telecommunication wavelength pump is used, revealing the material's promise for use in nonlinear optical devices.
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Conference paperFriddin MS, Bolognesi G, Elani Y, et al., 2016,
Optical tweezers to assemble 2D and 3D droplet interface bilayer networks from cell-sized droplets
, EMBL Microfluidics -
Journal articleLepert G, Gouveia RM, Connon CJ, et al., 2016,
Assessing corneal biomechanics with Brillouin spectro-microscopy
, Faraday Discussions, Vol: 187, Pages: 415-428, ISSN: 1364-5498A new Brillouin spectro-microscope was designed and built to investigate the mechanical properties of bovine and human corneas. This instrument integrates a single-stage virtually imaged phased array spectrometer with a novel adaptive-optics interferometric filter to achieve unprecedented rejection of the elastic background signal. As a result, highly-resolved, reproducible data from both thin and thick collagen-based materials were obtained. In particular, this technique is capable of rigorously measuring the relative stiffness of different areas of human corneas, thus providing a true non-contact method to characterise the fundamental mechanical features of both live and fixed biological tissue samples.
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Journal articleAmrania H, Drummond L, Coombes RC, et al., 2016,
New IR imaging modalities for cancer detection and for intra-cell chemical mapping with a sub-diffraction mid-IR s-SNOM
, Faraday Discussions, Vol: 187, Pages: 539-553, ISSN: 1364-5498We present two new modalities for generating chemical maps. Both are mid-IR based and aimed at the biomedical community, but they differ substantially in their technological readiness. The first, so-called "Digistain", is a technologically mature "locked down" way of acquiring diffraction-limited chemical images of human cancer biopsy tissue. Although it is less flexible than conventional methods of acquiring IR images, this is an intentional, and key, design feature. It allows it to be used, on a routine basis, by clinical personnel themselves. It is in the process of a full clinical evaluation and the philosophy behind the approach is discussed. The second modality is a very new, probe-based "s-SNOM", which we are developing in conjunction with a new family of tunable "Quantum Cascade Laser" (QCL) diode lasers. Although in its infancy, this instrument can already deliver ultra-detailed chemical images whose spatial resolutions beat the normal diffraction limit by a factor of ∼1000. This is easily enough to generate chemical maps of the insides of single cells for the first time, and a range of new possible scientific applications are explored.
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Journal articleKumar S, Lockward N, Ramel M-C, et al., 2016,
Quantitative in vivo optical tomography of cancer progression & vasculature development in adult zebrafish
, Oncotarget, Vol: 7, Pages: 43939-43948, ISSN: 1949-2553We describe a novel approach to study tumour progression and vasculature development in vivo via global 3-D fluorescence imaging of live non-pigmented adult zebrafish utilising angularly multiplexed optical projection tomography with compressive sensing (CS-OPT). This “mesoscopic” imaging method bridges a gap between established ~μm resolution 3-D fluorescence microscopy techniques and ~mm-resolved whole body planar imaging and diffuse tomography. Implementing angular multiplexing with CS-OPT, we demonstrate the in vivo global imaging of an inducible fluorescently labelled genetic model of liver cancer in adult non-pigmented zebrafish that also present fluorescently labelled vasculature. In this disease model, addition of a chemical inducer (doxycycline) drives expression of eGFP tagged oncogenic K-RASV12 in the liver of immune competent animals. We show that our novel in vivo global imaging methodology enables non-invasive quantitative imaging of the development of tumour and vasculature throughout the progression of the disease, which we have validated against established methods of pathology including immunohistochemistry. We have also demonstrated its potential for longitudinal imaging through a study of vascular development in the same zebrafish from early embryo to adulthood. We believe that this instrument, together with its associated analysis and data management tools, constitute a new platform for in vivo cancer studies and drug discovery in zebrafish disease models.
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Journal articleMurray RT, Runcorn TH, Kelleher EJR, et al., 2016,
Highly efficient mid-infrared difference-frequency generation using synchronously pulsed fiber lasers
, Optics Letters, Vol: 41, Pages: 2446-2449, ISSN: 1539-4794We report the development of a high average power, picosecond-pulse, mid-infrared source based on difference-frequency generation (DFG) of two synchronous master oscillator power fiber amplifier systems. The generated idler can be tuned over the range 3.28–3.45 μm delivering greater than 3.4 W of average power, with a maximum pump to total DFG power conversion efficiency of 78%. The benefits of a synchronously pumped scheme, compared to CW seeding of DFG sources, are discussed.
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Journal articleArbabzadah EA, Damzen MJ, 2016,
Fibre-coupled red diode-pumped Alexandrite TEM00 laser with single and double-pass end-pumping
, Laser Physics Letters, Vol: 13, ISSN: 1612-202XWe report the investigation of an Alexandrite laser end-pumped by a fibre-coupled red diode laser module. Power, efficiency, spatial, spectral, and wavelength tuning performance are studied as a function of pump and laser cavity parameters. It is the first demonstration, to our knowledge, of greater than 1 W power and also highest laser slope efficiency (44.2%) in a diode-pumped Alexandrite laser with diffraction-limited TEM00 mode operation. Spatial quality was excellent with beam propagation parameter M 2 ~ 1.05. Wavelength tuning from 737–796 nm was demonstrated using an intracavity birefringent tuning filter. Using a novel double pass end-pumping scheme to get efficient absorption of both polarisation states of the scrambled fibre-delivered diode pump, a total output coupled power of 1.66 W is produced in TEM00 mode with 40% slope efficiency.
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Journal articleKim Y, Warren SC, Stone JM, et al., 2016,
Adaptive Multiphoton Endomicroscope Incorporating a Polarization-Maintaining Multicore Optical Fibre
, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, Vol: 22, ISSN: 1558-4542We present a laser scanning multiphoton endomicroscopewith no distal optics or mechanical components that incorporatesa polarization-maintaining (PM) multicore optical fibre todeliver, focus, and scan ultrashort pulsed radiation for two-photonexcited fluorescence imaging. We show theoretically that the use ofa PM multicore fibre in our experimental configuration enhancesthe fluorescence excitation intensity achieved in the focal spot comparedto a non-PM optical fibre with the same geometry and con-firm this by computer simulations based on numerical wavefrontpropagation. In our experimental system, a spatial light modulator(SLM) is utilised to program the phase of the light input to each ofthe cores of the endoscope fibre such that the radiation emergingfrom the distal end of the fibre interferes to provide the focusedscanning excitation beam. We demonstrate that the SLM can enabledynamic phase correction of path-length variations across themulticore optical fibre whilst the fibre is perturbed with an updaterate of 100 Hz.
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Conference paperMaioli V, Gorlitz F, Warren S, et al., 2016,
Three-dimensional fluorescence imaging by stage-scanning oblique plane microscopy
, Conference on Three-Dimensional and Multidimensional Microscopy - Image Acquisition and Processing XXIII, Publisher: SPIE, ISSN: 0277-786X -
Journal articleAndrews N, Ramel M-C, Kumar S, et al., 2016,
Visualising apoptosis in live zebrafish using fluorescence lifetime imaging with optical projection tomography to map FRET biosensor activity in space and time
, Journal of Biophotonics, Vol: 9, Pages: 414-424, ISSN: 1864-0648Fluorescence lifetime imaging (FLIM) combined with optical projection tomography (OPT) has the potential to map Förster resonant energy transfer (FRET) readouts in space and time in intact transparent or near transparent live organisms such as zebrafish larvae, thereby providing a means to visualise cell signalling processes in their physiological context. Here the first application of FLIM OPT to read out biological function in live transgenic zebrafish larvae using a genetically expressed FRET biosensor is reported. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is mapped in 3-D by imaging the activity of a FRET biosensor that is cleaved by Caspase 3, which is a key effector of apoptosis. Although apoptosis is a naturally occurring process during development, it can also be triggered in a variety of ways, including through gamma irradiation. FLIM OPT is shown here to enable apoptosis to be monitored over time, in live zebrafish larvae via changes in Caspase 3 activation following gamma irradiation at 24 hours post fertilisation. Significant apoptosis was observed at 3.5 hours post irradiation, predominantly in the head region.
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Conference paperWatson TJ, Andrews N, Harry E, et al., 2016,
Remote focal scanning and sub-volume optical projection tomography
We present a platform for sub-volume optical projection tomography utilising an electrically tunable lens and tracking technology. Applied to 3D fluorescent bead phantoms and zebrafish embryos, we demonstrate an improvement in resolution and light collection efficiency with respect to conventional optical projection tomography.
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Conference paperMcCall MW, 2016,
Transformation optics, curvature and beyond (Conference Presentation)
, Conference on Metamaterials X, Publisher: Society of Photo-optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE), ISSN: 1996-756XAlthough the transformation algorithm is very well established and implemented, some intriguing questions remain unanswered. 1) In what precise mathematical sense is the transformation optics algorithm ‘exact’? The invariance of Maxwell’s equations is well understood, but in what sense does the same principle not apply to acoustics (say)? 2) Even if the fields are transformed in a way that apparently mimic vacuum perfectly, it is easy to construct very simple examples where the impedance of the transformed medium is no longer isotropic and homogeneous. This would seem to imply a fundamental shortcoming in any claim that electromagnetic cloaking has been reduced to technology. 3) Transformations are known to exist that introduce a discrepancy between the Poynting vector and the wave-vector. Does this distinction carry any physical significance? We have worked extensively on understanding a commonality between transformation theories that operates at the level of rays – being interpreted as geodesics of an appropriate manifold. At this level we now understand that the *key* problem underlying all attempts to unify the transformational approach to disparate areas of physics is how to relate the transformation of the base metric (be it Euclidean for spatial transformation optics, or Minkowskian for spacetime transformation optics) to the medium parameters of a given physical domain (e.g. constitutive parameters for electromagnetism, bulk modulus and mass density for acoustics, diffusion constant and number density for diffusion physics). Another misconception we will seek to address is the notion of the relationship between transformation optics and curvature. Many have indicated that transformation optics evinces similarities with Einstein’s curvature of spacetime. Here we will show emphatically that transformation optics cannot induce curvature. Inducing curvature in an electromagnetic medium requires the equivalent of a gravitational sou
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Conference paperAndrews N, Ramel MC, Kumar S, et al., 2016,
Fluorescence lifetime optical projection tomography and FRET applied to visualizing apoptosis in live zebrafish larvae
We present the application of FLIM-OPT to read out biological function in live transgenic zebrafish larvae using a genetically expressed cleavable FRET biosensor for Caspase-3 as an indicator of gamma radiation induced apoptosis.
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Journal articleMcCall MW, Kinsler P, Topf RDM, 2016,
The refractive index of reciprocal electromagnetic media
, Journal of Optics, Vol: 18, ISSN: 2040-8978We study the electromagnetics of media described by identical inhomogeneous relative dielectric and magnetic tensors, ${\boldsymbol{\epsilon }}={\boldsymbol{\mu }}.$ Such media occur generically as spatial transformation media, i.e. electromagnetic media that are defined by a deformation of space. We show that such media are completely described by a refractive index $n({\bf{r}},\hat{{\bf{s}}})$ that depends on position ${\bf{r}}$ and direction $\hat{{\bf{s}}},$ but is independent of polarization. The phase surface is always ellipsoidal, and $n({\bf{r}},\hat{{\bf{s}}})$ is therefore represented by the radius vector to the surface of the ellipsoid. We apply our method to calculate the angular dependence of the refractive index in the well-studied cylindrical cloak and to a new kind of structurally chiral medium induced by a twist deformation. By way of a simple example we also show that media for which ${\boldsymbol{\epsilon }}={\boldsymbol{\mu }}$ do not in general preserve the impedance properties of vacuum. The implications of this somewhat surprising conclusion for the field of transformation optics are discussed.
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Journal articlesherlock B, Yu F, Stone J, et al., 2016,
Tunable fibre-coupled multiphoton microscopy with a negative curvature fibre
, Journal of Biophotonics, Vol: 9, Pages: 715-720, ISSN: 1864-0648Negative curvature fibre (NCF) guides light in its core by inhibiting the coupling of core andcladding modes. In this work, an NCF was designed and fabricated to transmit ultrashort opticalpulses for multiphoton microscopy with low group velocity dispersion (GVD) at 800 nm. Itsattenuation was measured to be <0.3 dB.m-1over the range 600-850 nm and the GVD was-180±70 fs2.m-1at 800 nm. Using an average fibre output power of ~20 mW and pulserepetition rate of 80 MHz, the NCF enabled pulses with a duration of <200 fs to be transmittedthrough a length of 1.5 m of fibre over a tuning range of 180 nm without the need for dispersioncompensation. In a 4 m fibre, temporal and spectral pulse widths were maintained to within10% of low power values up to the maximum fibre output power achievable with the lasersystem used of 278 mW at 700 nm, 808 mW at 800 nm and 420 mW at 860 nm. When coupledto a multiphoton microscope, it enabled imaging of ex vivo tissue using excitation wavelengthsfrom 740 nm to 860 nm without any need for adjustments to the set-up.
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Journal articleKwakwa K, Savell A, Davies T, et al., 2016,
easySTORM: a robust, lower-cost approach to localisation and TIRF microscopy
, Journal of Biophotonics, Vol: 9, Pages: 948-957, ISSN: 1864-0648TIRF and STORM microscopy are super-resolving fluorescence imaging modalities for which current implementations on standard microscopes can present significant complexity and cost. We present a straightforward and low-cost approach to implement STORM and TIRF taking advantage of multimode optical fibres and multimode diode lasers to provide the required excitation light. Combined with open source software and relatively simple protocols to prepare samples for STORM, including the use of Vectashield for non-TIRF imaging, this approach enables TIRF and STORM imaging of cells labelled with appropriate dyes or expressing suitable fluorescent proteins to become widely accessible at low cost.
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Journal articleSikkel MB, Kumar S, Maioli V, et al., 2016,
High speed sCMOS-based oblique plane microscopy applied to the study of calcium dynamics in cardiac myocytes
, Journal of Biophotonics, Vol: 9, Pages: 311-323, ISSN: 1864-0648blique plane microscopy (OPM) is a form of light sheet microscopy that uses a single high numerical aperture microscope objective for both fluorescence excitation and collection. In this paper, measurements of the relative collection efficiency of OPM are presented. An OPM system incorporating two sCMOS cameras is then introduced that enables single isolated cardiac myocytes to be studied continuously for 22 seconds in two dimensions at 667 frames per second with 960 × 200 pixels and for 30 seconds with 960 × 200 × 20 voxels at 25 volumes per second. In both cases OPM is able to record in two spectral channels, enabling intracellular calcium to be studied via the probe Fluo-4 AM simultaneously with the sarcolemma and transverse tubule network via the membrane dye Cellmask Orange. The OPM system was then applied to determine the spatial origin of spontaneous calcium waves for the first time and to measure the cell transverse tubule structure at their point of origin. Further results are presented to demonstrate that the OPM system can also be used to study calcium spark parameters depending on their relationship to the transverse tubule structure.
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Journal articleMcGinty J, French P, Frankel P, 2016,
Novel 3D imaging platform tracks cancer progression in vivo
, Biochemist, Vol: 38, Pages: 12-15, ISSN: 0954-982XOptical imaging underpins biomedical research in many respects and recent decades have seen spectacular advances, particularly in fluorescence imaging where genetic engineering approaches to labelling have been combined with new light sources, detectors and data analysis techniques to provide capabilities like super-resolution beyond the diffraction limit, exquisite spectroscopic contrast for molecular readouts and high-speed image capture for in vivo and high-throughput applications. However, the main impact of such advanced instrumentation and data analysis has been to provide unprecedented quantitative 2D and 3D information concerning samples compatible with microscopy where volumes of less than 1 mm3 are typically imaged in a single 'acquisition'. The ability to view and measure cellular processes and signalling pathways in live cells has been a significant advance for biomedical research and drug discovery. However, for conventional microscope-based assays and experiments, the samples typically comprise thin layers of cells that are not experiencing the same signals that they would in a 3D tissue context and any findings may not directly translate to live organisms. It is desirable to study disease processes in live intact organisms that can provide appropriate physiological complexity. For cancer studies, recent research from our group shows that optical tomography can be used to directly monitor in vivo changes in tumour growth and vascular development in a zebrafish cancer model over time. This technique not only improves the value of the collected data, but if used on a wider scale should result in a reduction in the number of animals used in biomedical research.
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