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  • Journal article
    Bandyopadhyay R, Matthaeus WH, Parashar TN, Chhiber R, Ruffolo D, Goldstein ML, Maruca BA, Chasapis A, Qudsi R, McComas DJ, Christian ER, Szalay JR, Joyce CJ, Giacalone J, Schwadron NA, Mitchell DG, Hill ME, Wiedenbeck ME, McNutt RL, Desai MI, Bale SD, Bonnell JW, de Wit TD, Goetz K, Harvey PR, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, Pulupa M, Velli M, Kasper JC, Korreck KE, Stevens M, Case AW, Raouafi Net al., 2020,

    Observations of Energetic-particle Population Enhancements along Intermittent Structures near the Sun from the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i>

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Allen RC, Lario D, Odstrcil D, Ho GC, Jian LK, Cohen CMS, Badman ST, Jones SI, Arge CN, Mays ML, Mason GM, Bale SD, Bonnell JW, Case AW, Christian ER, de Wit TD, Goetz K, Harvey PR, Henney CJ, Hill ME, Kasper JC, Korreck KE, Larson D, Livi R, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, McComas DJ, McNutt R, Mitchell DG, Pulupa M, Raouafi N, Schwadron N, Stevens ML, Whittlesey PL, Wiedenbeck Met al., 2020,

    Solar Wind Streams and Stream Interaction Regions Observed by the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i> with Corresponding Observations at 1 au

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Kim TK, Pogorelov NV, Arge CN, Henney CJ, Jones-Mecholsky SI, Smith WP, Bale SD, Bonnell JW, De Wit TD, Goetz K, Harvey PR, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, Pulupa M, Kasper JC, Korreck KE, Stevens M, Case AW, Whittlesey P, Livi R, Larson DE, Klein KG, Zank GPet al., 2020,

    Predicting the Solar Wind at the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i> Using an Empirically Driven MHD Model

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Badman ST, Bale SD, Oliveros JCM, Panasenco O, Velli M, Stansby D, Buitrago-Casas JC, Reville V, Bonnell JW, Case AW, de Wit TD, Goetz K, Harvey PR, Kasper JC, Korreck KE, Larson DE, Livi R, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, Pulupa M, Stevens ML, Whittlesey PLet al., 2020,

    Magnetic Connectivity of the Ecliptic Plane within 0.5 au: Potential Field Source Surface Modeling of the First<i>Parker Solar Probe</i>Encounter

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Wiedenbeck ME, Bucik R, Mason GM, Ho GC, Leske RA, Cohen CMS, Christian ER, Cummings AC, Davis AJ, Desai M, Giacalone J, Haggerty DK, Hill ME, Joyce CJ, Labrador AW, Malandraki O, Matthaeus WH, McComas DJ, McNutt RL, Mewaldt RA, Mitchell DG, Posner A, Rankin JS, Roelof EC, Schwadron NA, Stone EC, Szalay JR, Bale SD, Case AW, Kasper JC, Korreck KE, Larson DE, MacDowall RJ, Pulupa M, Stevens MLet al., 2020,

    <SUP>3</SUP>He-rich Solar Energetic Particle Observations at the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i> and near Earth

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Chaston CC, Bonnell JW, Bale SD, Kasper JC, Pulupa M, de Wit TD, Bowen TA, Larson DE, Whittlesey PL, Wygant JR, Salem CS, MacDowall RJ, Livi RL, Vech D, Case AW, Stevens ML, Korreck KE, Goetz K, Harvey PR, Malaspina DMet al., 2020,

    MHD Mode Composition in the Inner Heliosphere from the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i>'s First Perihelion

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Huang J, Kasper JC, Vech D, Klein KG, Stevens M, Martinovic MM, Alterman BL, Durovcova T, Paulson K, Maruca BA, Qudsi RA, Case AW, Korreck KE, Jian LK, Velli M, Lavraud B, Hegedus A, Bert CM, Holmes J, Bale SD, Larson DE, Livi R, Whittlesey P, Pulupa M, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, Bonnell JW, Harvey P, Goetz K, de Wit TDet al., 2020,

    Proton Temperature Anisotropy Variations in Inner Heliosphere Estimated with the First <i>Parker Solar Probe</i> Observations

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Journal article
    Shatwell P, Czaja A, Ferreira D, 2020,

    Ocean heat storage rate unaffected by MOC weakening in an idealised climate model
  • Journal article
    Page B, Bale SD, Bonnell JW, Goetz K, Goodrich K, Harvey PR, Larsen R, MacDowall RJ, Malaspina DM, Pokorny P, Pulupa M, Szalay JRet al., 2020,

    Examining Dust Directionality with the <i>Parker Solar Probe</i> FIELDS Instrument

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, Vol: 246, ISSN: 0067-0049
  • Report
    Ceppi P, Gregory J, 2020,

    Climate sensitivity: What is it, and why is it important?

    , Climate sensitivity: What is it, and why is it important?, Publisher: The Grantham Institute, 11

    Climate sensitivity is a fundamental measure of global climate change. This briefing paper explains how climate sensitivity is estimated from different lines of evidence – modelling, observations, and palaeoclimate records – and why its exact value remains uncertain.
  • Journal article
    Escoubet CP, Hwang K-J, Toledo-Redondo S, Turc L, Haaland SE, Aunai N, Dargent J, Eastwood JP, Fear RC, Fu H, Genestreti KJ, Graham DB, Khotyaintsev YV, Lapenta G, Lavraud B, Norgren C, Sibeck DG, Varsani A, Berchem J, Dimmock AP, Paschmann G, Dunlop M, Bogdanova YV, Roberts O, Laakso H, Masson A, Taylor MGGT, Kajdič P, Carr C, Dandouras I, Fazakerley A, Nakamura R, Burch JL, Giles BL, Pollock C, Russell CT, Torbert RBet al., 2020,

    Cluster and MMS simultaneous observations of magnetosheath high speed jets and their impact on the magnetopause

    , Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences, Vol: 6, Pages: 1-21, ISSN: 2296-987X

    When the supersonic solar wind encounters the Earth's magnetosphere a shock, called bow shock, is formed and the plasma is decelerated and thermalized in the magnetosheath downstream from the shock. Sometimes, however, due to discontinuities in the solar wind, bow shock ripples or ionized dust clouds carried by the solar wind, high speed jets (HSJs) are observed in the magnetosheath. These HSJs have typically a Vx component larger than 200 km s−1 and their dynamic pressure can be a few times the solar wind dynamic pressure. They are typically observed downstream from the quasi-parallel bow shock and have a typical size around one Earth radius (RE) in XGSE. We use a conjunction of Cluster and MMS, crossing simultaneously the magnetopause, to study the characteristics of these HSJs and their impact on the magnetopause. Over 1 h 15 min interval in the magnetosheath, Cluster observed 21 HSJs. During the same period, MMS observed 12 HSJs and entered the magnetosphere several times. A jet was observed simultaneously by both MMS and Cluster and it is very likely that they were two distinct HSJs. This shows that HSJs are not localized into small regions but could span a region larger than 10 RE, especially when the quasi-parallel shock is covering the entire dayside magnetosphere under radial IMF. During this period, two and six magnetopause crossings were observed, respectively, on Cluster and MMS with a significant angle between the observation and the expected normal deduced from models. The angles observed range between from 11° up to 114°. One inbound magnetopause crossing observed by Cluster (magnetopause moving out at 142 km s−1) was observed simultaneous to an outbound magnetopause crossing observed by MMS (magnetopause moving in at −83 km s−1), showing that the magnetopause can have multiple local indentation places, most likely independent from each other. Under the continuous impacts of HSJs, the magnetopause is deformed significan
  • Journal article
    Perrone D, D'Amicis R, De Marco R, Matteini L, Stansby D, Bruno R, Horbury TSet al., 2020,

    Highly Alfvenic slow solar wind at 0.3 au during a solar minimum: Helios insights for Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter

    , Astronomy and Astrophysics: a European journal, Vol: 633, Pages: 1-7, ISSN: 0004-6361

    Alfvénic fluctuations in solar wind are an intrinsic property of fast streams, while slow intervals typically have a very low degree of Alfvénicity, with much more variable parameters. However, sometimes a slow wind can be highly Alfvénic. Here we compare three different regimes of solar wind, in terms of Alfvénic content and spectral properties, during a minimum phase of the solar activity and at 0.3 au. We show that fast and Alfvénic slow intervals share some common characteristics. This would suggest a similar solar origin, with the latter coming from over-expanded magnetic field lines, in agreement with observations at 1 au and at the maximum of the solar cycle. Due to the Alfvénic nature of the fluctuations in both fast and Alfvénic slow winds, we observe a well-defined correlation between the flow speed and the angle between magnetic field vector and radial direction. The high level of Alfvénicity is also responsible of intermittent enhancements (i.e. spikes), in plasma speed. Moreover, only for the Alfvénic intervals do we observe a break between the inertial range and large scales, on about the timescale typical of the Alfvénic fluctuations and where the magnetic fluctuations saturate, limited by the magnitude of the local magnetic field. In agreement with this, we recover a characteristic low-frequency 1/f scaling, as expected for fluctuations that are scale-independent. This work is directly relevant for the next solar missions, Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter. One of the goals of these two missions is to study the origin and evolution of slow solar wind. In particular, Parker Solar Probe will give information about the Alfvénic slow wind in the unexplored region much closer to the Sun and Solar Orbiter will allow us to connect the observed physics to the source of the plasma.
  • Journal article
    Wang R, Vasko IY, Mozer FS, Bale SD, Artemyev AV, Bonnell JW, Ergun R, Giles B, Lindqvist P-A, Russell CT, Strangeway Ret al., 2020,

    Electrostatic Turbulence and Debye-scale Structures in Collisionless Shocks

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL LETTERS, Vol: 889, ISSN: 2041-8205
  • Journal article
    Liu Z, Wang L, Shi Q, Oka M, Yang L, Wimmer-Schweingruber RF, He J, Tian H, Bale SDet al., 2020,

    Case Study of Solar Wind Suprathermal Electron Acceleration at the Earth's Bow Shock

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL LETTERS, Vol: 889, ISSN: 2041-8205
  • Journal article
    Gryspeerdt E, Mülmenstädt J, Gettelman A, Malavelle F, Morrison H, Neubauer D, Partridge D, Stier P, Takemura T, Wang H, Wang M, Zhang Ket al., 2020,

    Surprising similarities in model and observational aerosol radiative forcing estimates

    , Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, Vol: 20, Pages: 613-623, ISSN: 1680-7316

    The radiative forcing from aerosols (particularly through their interaction with clouds) remains one of the mostuncertain components of the human forcing of the climate. Observation-based studies have typically found a smaller aerosoleffective radiative forcing than in model simulations and were given preferential weighting in the IPCC AR5 report. With theirown sources of uncertainty, it is not clear that observation-based estimates are more reliable. Understanding the source of the model-observational difference is thus vital to reduce uncertainty in the impact of aerosols on the climate.These reported discrepancies arise from the different methods of separating the components of aerosol forcing used in modeland observational studies. Applying the observational decomposition to global climate model output, the two different linesof evidence are surprisingly similar, with a much better agreement on the magnitude of aerosol impacts on cloud properties.Cloud adjustments remain a significant source of uncertainty, particularly for ice clouds. However, they are consistent with the uncertainty from observation-based methods, with the liquid water path adjustment usually enhancing the Twomey effectby less than 50%. Depending on different sets of assumptions, this work suggests that model and observation-based estimatescould be more equally weighted in future synthesis studies.
  • Journal article
    Zelinka MD, Myers TA, McCoy DT, PoChedley S, Caldwell PM, Ceppi P, Klein SA, Taylor KEet al., 2020,

    Causes of higher climate sensitivity in CMIP6 models

    , Geophysical Research Letters, Vol: 47, ISSN: 0094-8276

    Equilibrium climate sensitivity, the global surface temperature response to CO urn:x-wiley:grl:media:grl60047:grl60047-math-0001 doubling, has been persistently uncertain. Recent consensus places it likely within 1.5–4.5 K. Global climate models (GCMs), which attempt to represent all relevant physical processes, provide the most direct means of estimating climate sensitivity via CO urn:x-wiley:grl:media:grl60047:grl60047-math-0002 quadrupling experiments. Here we show that the closely related effective climate sensitivity has increased substantially in Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 6 (CMIP6), with values spanning 1.8–5.6 K across 27 GCMs and exceeding 4.5 K in 10 of them. This (statistically insignificant) increase is primarily due to stronger positive cloud feedbacks from decreasing extratropical low cloud coverage and albedo. Both of these are tied to the physical representation of clouds which in CMIP6 models lead to weaker responses of extratropical low cloud cover and water content to unforced variations in surface temperature. Establishing the plausibility of these higher sensitivity models is imperative given their implied societal ramifications.
  • Journal article
    Gingell I, Schwartz SJ, Eastwood JP, Stawarz JE, Burch JL, Ergun RE, Fuselier SA, Gershman DJ, Giles BL, Khotyaintsev YV, Lavraud B, Lindqvist P, Paterson WR, Phan TD, Russell CT, Strangeway RJ, Torbert RB, Wilder Fet al., 2020,

    Statistics of reconnecting current sheets in the transition region of earth's bow shock

    , Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics, Vol: 125, Pages: 1-14, ISSN: 2169-9380

    We have conducted a comprehensive survey of burst mode observations of Earth's bow shock by the Magnetospheric Multiscale mission to identify and characterize current sheets associated with collisionless shocks, with a focus on those containing fast electron outflows, a likely signature of magnetic reconnection. The survey demonstrates that these thin current sheets are observed within the transition region of approximately 40% of shocks within the burst mode data set of Magnetospheric Multiscale. With only small apparent bias toward quasi‐parallel shock orientations and high Alfvén Mach numbers, the results suggest that reconnection at shocks is a universal process, occurring across all shock orientations and Mach numbers. On examining the distributions of current sheet properties, we find no correlation between distance from the shock, sheet width, or electron jet speed, though the relationship between electron and ion jet speed supports expectations of electron‐only reconnection in the region. Furthermore, we find that robust heating statistics are not separable from background fluctuations, and thus, the primary consequence of reconnection at shocks is in relaxing the topology of the disordered magnetic field in the transition region.
  • Conference paper
    Landi S, Franci L, Hellinger P, Papini E, Verdini A, Matteini Let al., 2020,

    Turbulence spectral anisotropy and energy ow at ion scales

    , Pages: 286-290, ISSN: 1824-016X

    We have analyzed the spectral properties and the anisotropy of the energy transfer rate in plasma turbulence by using high-resolution three-dimensional simulation of decaying turbulence at kinetic scales. We made use of an hybrid-PIC approach where ions are treated as particles and electrons as a massless fluid. Th simulation was produced at KNL-MARCONI, a Tier-0 system facilities of CINECA, using the INAF 2017 call (grant INA17 C3A22a). The simulations produced are state-of-the-art in terms of resolution and number of particles integrated in the system, and was used to analyse the energy transfer rate and spectral anisotropy at ion kinetic scales. A short summary of the resources allocated and the results obtained is here reported.
  • Conference paper
    Franci L, Papini E, 2020,

    Turbulence and magnetic reconnection in low-beta plasmas

    , Pages: 311-318, ISSN: 1824-016X

    Understanding how the turbulent energy cascade terminates at small scales in collisionless plasmas represents a long-standing challenge for the plasma community, and is strictly related to the open issues of coronal heating and solar wind heating and acceleration. Here we investigate the dynamics of low-beta turbulent plasmas by performing high-resolution 2D and 3D hybrid particle-in-cell simulations of the near-Sun environment. Our aim is to infer how the low plasma beta, typical of the solar corona, affects the development and properties of turbulence and magnetic reconnection and their interplay. We indeed identify a new plasma regime at ion characteristic scales. Such regime has different properties of the electromagnetic and plasma fluctuations with respect to what is typically observed in the solar wind and in the Earth’s magnetosheath. A stronger activity of magnetic reconnection is also observed. We expect that such regime may be relevant for a broad class of low-beta plasmas, both in space, astrophysical, and laboratory environments.
  • Journal article
    Pucci F, Velli M, Shi C, Singh KAP, Tenerani A, Alladio F, Ambrosino F, Buratti P, Fox W, Jara-Almonte J, Ji H, Yamada M, Yoo J, Okamura S, Ergun R, Hoilijoki S, Schwartz Set al., 2020,

    Onset of fast magnetic reconnection and particle energization in laboratory and space plasmas

    , Journal of Plasma Physics, ISSN: 0022-3778

    The onset of magnetic reconnection in space, astrophysical and laboratory plasmas is reviewed discussing results from theory, numerical simulations and observations. After a brief introduction on magnetic reconnection and approach to the question of onset, we first discuss recent theoretical models and numerical simulations, followed by observations of reconnection and its effects in space and astrophysical plasmas from satellites and ground-based detectors, as well as measurements of reconnection in laboratory plasma experiments. Mechanisms allowing reconnection spanning from collisional resistivity to kinetic effects as well as partial ionization are described, providing a description valid over a wide range of plasma parameters, and therefore applicable in principle to many different astrophysical and laboratory environments. Finally, we summarize the implications of reconnection onset physics for plasma dynamics throughout the Universe and illustrate how capturing the dynamics correctly is important to understanding particle acceleration. The goal of this review is to give a view on the present status of this topic and future interesting investigations, offering a unified approach.
  • Journal article
    Trotta D, Burgess D, Prete G, Perri S, Zimbardo Get al., 2020,

    Particle transport in hybrid PIC shock simulations: A comparison of diagnostics

    , MONTHLY NOTICES OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, Vol: 491, Pages: 580-595, ISSN: 0035-8711
  • Journal article
    Vihma T, Graversen R, Chen L, Handorf D, Skific N, Francis JA, Tyrrell N, Hall R, Hanna E, Uotila P, Dethloff K, Karpechko AY, Bjornsson H, Overland JEet al., 2020,

    Effects of the tropospheric large-scale circulation on European winter temperatures during the period of amplified Arctic warming

    , INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, Vol: 40, Pages: 509-529, ISSN: 0899-8418
  • Journal article
    Cao Y, Wellbrock A, Coates AJ, CaroCarretero R, Jones GH, Cui J, Galand M, Dougherty MKet al., 2020,

    Field‐aligned photoelectron energy peaks at high altitude and on the nightside of titan

    , Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, Vol: 125, Pages: 1-13, ISSN: 2169-9097

    The ionization of N urn:x-wiley:jgre:media:jgre21272:jgre21272-math-0001 by strong solar He II 30.4‐nm photons produces distinctive spectral peaks near 24.1 eV in Titan's upper atmosphere, which have been observed by the Electron Spectrometer (ELS) as part of the Cassini Plasma Spectrometer. The ELS observations reveal that, in addition to the dayside, photoelectron peaks were also detected on the deep nightside where photoionization is switched off, as well as at sufficiently high altitudes where the ambient neutral density is low. These photoelectron peaks are unlikely to be produced locally but instead must be contributed by transport along the magnetic field lines from their dayside source regions. In this study, we present a statistical survey of all photoelectron peaks identified with an automatic finite impulse response algorithm based on the available ELS data accumulated during 56 Titan flybys. The spatial distribution of photoelectron peaks indicates that most photoelectrons detected at an altitude above 4,000 km and a solar zenith angle above 100° are field aligned, which is consistent with the scenario of photoelectron transport along the magnetic field lines. Our analysis also reveals the presence of a photoelectron gap in the deep nightside ionosphere where almost no photoelectrons were detected. It appears to be very difficult for photoelectrons to travel to this region, and such a feature may not be driven by the changes in the orientation between the solar and corotation wakes.
  • Journal article
    Reid J, Cargill PJ, Hood AW, Parnell CE, Arber TDet al., 2020,

    Coronal energy release by MHD avalanches: Heating mechanisms

    , Astronomy and Astrophysics: a European journal, Vol: 633, Pages: 1-16, ISSN: 0004-6361

    The plasma heating associated with an avalanche involving three twisted magnetic threads within a coronal loop is investigated using three-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations. The avalanche is triggered by the kink instability of one thread, with the others being engulfed as a consequence. The heating as a function of both time and location along the strands is evaluated. It is shown to be bursty at all times but to have no preferred spatial location. While there appears to be a level of “background” heating, this is shown to be comprised of individual, small heating events. A comparison between viscous and resistive (Ohmic) heating demonstrates that the strongest heating events are largely associated with the Ohmic heating that arises when the current exceeds a critical value. Viscous heating is largely (but not entirely) associated with smaller events. Ohmic heating dominates viscous heating only at the time of the initial kink instability. It is also demonstrated that a variety of viscous models lead to similar heating rates, suggesting that the system adjusts to dissipate the same amount of energy.
  • Journal article
    Wolf G, Czaja A, Brayshaw DJ, Klingaman NPet al., 2020,

    Connection between Sea Surface Anomalies and Atmospheric Quasi-Stationary Waves

    , JOURNAL OF CLIMATE, Vol: 33, Pages: 201-212, ISSN: 0894-8755
  • Journal article
    Hanson ELM, Agapitov OV, Mozer FS, Krasnoselskikh V, Bale SD, Avanov L, Giles BL, Torbert RBet al., 2020,

    Terrestrial Bow Shock Parameters From MMS Measurements: Dependence on Upstream and Downstream Time Ranges

    , JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH-SPACE PHYSICS, Vol: 125, ISSN: 2169-9380
  • Conference paper
    Heyns M, Lotz S, Gaunt CT, 2020,

    Probabilistic Analysis of Power Network Susceptibility to GICs

    , International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to Power Systems (PMAPS), Publisher: IEEE, ISSN: 2642-6730
  • Conference paper
    Oyedokun D, Heyns M, Cilliers P, Gaunt CTet al., 2020,

    Frequency Components of Geomagnetically Induced Currents for Power System Modelling

    , International SAUPEC/RobMech/PRASA Conference, Publisher: IEEE, Pages: 824-829
  • Journal article
    Klein KG, Martinovic M, Stansby D, Horbury TSet al., 2019,

    Linear Stability in the Inner Heliosphere: <i>Helios</i> Re-evaluated

    , ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, Vol: 887, ISSN: 0004-637X
  • Journal article
    Muelmenstaedt J, Gryspeerdt E, Salzmann M, Ma P-L, Dipu S, Quaas Jet al., 2019,

    Separating radiative forcing by aerosol-cloud interactions and rapid cloud adjustments in the ECHAM-HAMMOZ aerosol-climate model using the method of partial radiative perturbations

    , Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, Vol: 19, Pages: 15415-15429, ISSN: 1680-7316

    Using the method of offline radiative transfer modeling within the partial radiative perturbation (PRP) approach, the effective radiative forcing by aerosol–cloud interactions (ERFaci) in the ECHAM–HAMMOZ aerosol climate model is decomposed into a radiative forcing by anthropogenic cloud droplet number change and adjustments of the liquid water path and cloud fraction. The simulated radiative forcing by anthropogenic cloud droplet number change and liquid water path adjustment are of approximately equal magnitude at −0.52 and −0.53 W m−2, respectively, while the cloud-fraction adjustment is somewhat weaker at −0.31 W m−2 (constituting 38 %, 39 %, and 23 % of the total ERFaci, respectively); geographically, all three ERFaci components in the simulation peak over China, the subtropical eastern ocean boundaries, the northern Atlantic and Pacific oceans, Europe, and eastern North America (in order of prominence). Spatial correlations indicate that the temporal-mean liquid water path adjustment is proportional to the temporal-mean radiative forcing, while the relationship between cloud-fraction adjustment and radiative forcing is less direct. While the estimate of warm-cloud ERFaci is relatively insensitive to the treatment of ice and mixed-phase cloud overlying warm cloud, there are indications that more restrictive treatments of ice in the column result in a low bias in the estimated magnitude of the liquid water path adjustment and a high bias in the estimated magnitude of the droplet number forcing. Since the present work is the first PRP decomposition of the aerosol effective radiative forcing into radiative forcing and rapid cloud adjustments, idealized experiments are conducted to provide evidence that the PRP results are accurate. The experiments show that using low-frequency (daily or monthly) time-averaged model output of the cloud property fields underestimates the ERF

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